The Last Crusade and the First Zionists: Religion, Empire, and the Making of Modern Palestine

Roberto Mazzaa

Abstract

This article examines the neglected religious dimensions of British imperial policy toward Palestine during World War One, arguing that the relationship between the Balfour Declaration and the British capture of Jerusalem represents far more than mere chronological coincidence. Rather than viewing policy through purely strategic lenses, this study demonstrates how Christian Zionism British Israelism, and crusading rhetoric provided essential frameworks for key figures like David Lloyd George and Arthur Balfour. Transnational evangelical networks spanning Britain and America influenced these decisions, functioning as both intelligence-gathering organizations and sources of political support. These networks helped create a “Biblical Palestine”—an imaginary landscape superimposed upon the actual territory—where religious conviction shaped imperial calculations.

However, attempts to combine multiple religious frameworks created fundamental contradictions; specifically, Christian Zionist support for Jewish restoration often conflicted with crusading imagery emphasizing Christian dominance. The gap between these evangelical expectations and practical governance realities contributed to ongoing tensions that escalated conflict between Jewish and Arab populations, ultimately undermining British authority throughout the mandate period. The failure of British policy cannot be fully understood without recognizing how religious motivations shaped initial commitments that proved impossible to fulfill. Furthermore, the article posits that these religious networks survived imperial decline, transforming into contemporary movements that continue influencing Middle Eastern politics, particularly regarding American evangelical support for Israel. Ultimately, this examination illustrates both the power and the limitations of religious conviction as a foundation for political action in international relations and the complex challenges of governing diverse societies in an interconnected world.

Keywords: Christian Zionism, British Empire, Balfour Declaration, religious networks, Palestine



Inverting the Eagle to Embrace the Star of David: The Nationalist Roots of German Christian Zionism

George Faithful

Abstract

This article examines the nationalist roots of Christian Zionism in Germany, arguing that it emerged within a context distinct from its American counterpart. Rather than being primarily rooted in traditional nationalism, German Christian Zionism developed largely out of a collective sense of guilt toward the Jewish people in the aftermath of the Holocaust. The article focuses on the thought of Klara Schlink and the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, who articulated a model of Christian Zionism grounded in German national repentance, acknowledgment of moral responsibility for the persecution of the Jews, and support for the State of Israel as part of the divine plan. It further demonstrates how Schlink reinterpreted certain concepts of German nationalism within a new theological framework that transformed service to the Jewish people into a religious obligation, while maintaining the belief in the unique status of the Jews and their distinctive role in salvation history. The study also discusses the influence of eschatological theology, the role of women in shaping this movement, and the Sisterhood’s activities in serving the Jewish people and promoting Christian Zionism both within Germany and internationally. It concludes that German Christian Zionism represents a reformulation of German nationalism in a religious guise, characterized by repentance and unconditional support for Israel.

Keywords: German Christian Zionism, Klara Schlink, German nationalism, the Holocaust, the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary.

Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches

Rosemary Radford Ruether

Abstract

This article examines the origins and development of Christian Zionism within the major Western Christian churches, demonstrating that it is not confined to fundamentalist Evangelical movements but also extends to influential ecclesiastical and political institutions in Britain and the United States. It explores how Christian Zionism became intertwined with Western imperial thought and the notion of the “chosen nation,” thereby contributing to support for the Zionist project from the nineteenth century through the Balfour Declaration and the establishment of the State of Israel. The article further argues that this support was initially grounded in religious and theological justifications and was later reinforced in the aftermath of the Holocaust through a theology of repentance, which has often limited criticism of Israeli policies toward the Palestinians. It also reviews the shifts that have taken place within some Western churches in recent decades, highlighting the emergence of Christian and Jewish voices advocating justice for the Palestinians and calling for a clear distinction between interfaith dialogue and political conflict. The article concludes that achieving a just and lasting peace requires moving beyond theologically biased interpretations and recognizing the rights of all peoples on the basis of justice and equality.

Keywords: Christian Zionism, Western churches, Balfour Declaration, Palestine, post-Holocaust theology.



Living in the Hour of Restoration: Christian Zionism, Immigration, and Aliyah,

Faydra L. Shapiro

Abstract

This article examines the Christian Zionist understanding of Jewish immigration to Israel (Aliyah) as a religious and eschatological event that transcends its character as a mere demographic movement. It explains that Christian Zionists regard the return of the Jewish people to Israel as the fulfillment of biblical promises and as evidence that the stages of redemption and the restoration of Israel are drawing near. The article also explores the practical role played by Christian Zionist organizations in supporting Jewish immigration through financial assistance, logistical aid, and spiritual encouragement, arguing that such support reflects the transnational character of the movement and its religious commitment to Israel. Furthermore, it discusses the contrast between the favorable attitude of Christian Zionists toward Aliyah and the more cautious stance adopted by some Evangelicals toward immigration in general, attributing this difference to the distinctive theological significance that Christian Zionism assigns to Jewish immigration. Finally, the article demonstrates that this understanding does not fully coincide with the Jewish Zionist perspective but is instead rooted in a Christian narrative that views Aliyah as an integral part of God’s plan to restore the Jewish people and prepare the world for the fulfillment of redemption, while allowing for limited criticism of Israeli policies when they are perceived to conflict with Christian Zionist theological convictions.

Keywords: Christian Zionism, Aliyah, Jewish immigration, restoration, Israel.

Palestinian Christian Reflections on Christian Zionism

Mitri Raheb

Abstract

This article presents a critical Palestinian Christian perspective on Christian Zionism, arguing that it represents an extension of the European colonial project, which employed religious interpretations to justify domination over Palestine and support for the Zionist enterprise. The author contends that the roots of Christian Zionism were closely linked to the British Empire from the nineteenth century onward, and that the Balfour Declaration constituted the political expression of this ideology while disregarding the presence and national rights of the Palestinian people. The article also examines the impact of the 1967 Arab–Israeli War in revitalizing Christian Zionism and strengthening its alliance with the Israeli right, particularly through its support for Israeli settlements and its rejection of political compromise. It further argues that this movement extends beyond political advocacy, possessing an extensive network of economic, financial, and tourism-related influence in support of Israel. From a theological perspective, the author criticizes Christian Zionism for its emphasis on end-times prophecy at the expense of the values of justice, peace, and human rights, maintaining that it overlooks the suffering of the Palestinians and employs religion to justify the Israeli occupation. The article concludes that the continued influence of this ideology hinders the prospects for a just peace and marginalizes the voice of Palestinian Christians in international discourse.

Keywords: Christian Zionism, Palestinian Christianity, colonialism, Israeli occupation, political theology.